The Vedic Age is a important chapter in the ancient history of India, marking a significant period of cultural, social, and religious development. For aspirants preparing for competitive exams such as UPSC, SSC, and Railway exams, a thorough understanding of the Vedic Age is crucial.
These exams often include questions on ancient history and the Vedic Age, making it an essential component of general knowledge preparation. This period not only laid the foundation for many of India's cultural and religious practices but also influenced the political and social structures that followed.
Original Home and Identity
The term "Aryan" translates to "of high birth". The original homeland of the Aryans remains a topic of debate, but the most widely accepted theory suggests they migrated from Central Asia in several groups between 2000-1500 BC.
They settled in Eastern Afghanistan, modern Pakistan, and Punjab, a region known as the land of seven rivers or 'Sapta Sindhu'. This area includes the Indus and its five tributaries: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej, along with the Saraswati river.
The Central Asian theory is supported by the Boghazkai Inscription in Turkey, which mentions four Vedic Gods: Indra, Varuna, Mitra, and Nasatya.
Rigvedic or Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
Geography
Early Vedic people inhabited the region of Sapta Sindhu and were familiar with about 40 rivers, including the Yamuna, Saraswati, and Ganga. They referred to the ocean as Samudra, the Himalayas as Himvant, the Hindu Kush as Munjavants, and the desert as Dhawa.
Rivers Mentioned in the Rig Veda
| Rigvedic Names | Modern Names |
|---|---|
| Sindhu | Indus |
| Vitasta | Jhelum |
| Asikni | Chenab |
| Parushni | Ravi |
| Vipas | Beas |
| Shutudri | Sutlej |
| Gomati | Gomal |
| Krumu | Kurram |
| Drishadvati | Ghaggar |
| Suvasthu | Swat |
| Kubha | Kabul |
| Nanditara | Saraswati |
| Sadanira | Gandak |
Conflicts
The Aryans came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called Dasas (an earlier branch of Aryans) and Dasyus (original inhabitants). The Rig Veda frequently mentions Dasyuhatya, or the slaughter of Dasyus.
The Dasarajna War (Battle of Ten Kings)
This battle took place on the bank of the Parushni river (Ravi). Sudas, the son of Divodas and the Bharata king of the Tritsu family, defeated an alliance of ten tribes (five Aryans and five non-Aryans). The conflict arose from a dispute between Vashistha (priest of Bharatas) and Visvamitra (priest of the alliance).
Economy
The Rigvedic Aryans had a mixed economy of agriculture and pastoralism, with pastoralism being their primary occupation. They possessed advanced knowledge of agriculture, including the use of wooden ploughshares, sowing, harvesting, and threshing. Cows were the most important form of wealth, and the term for war in the Rig Veda is Gavishthi, or the search for cows. Gold coins like Nishka, Krishna, and Satmana were also in use.
Polity
The king or Rajan was the head of the tribal polity. Although the position was hereditary, there are traces of election by the tribal assembly called 'Samiti.' Several tribal or clan-based assemblies existed, such as the Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha, and Gana.
The Samiti was the National Assembly of the people, while the Sabha was the Council of Elders. The king was assisted by functionaries, with the Purohita (religious advisor) being the most important, followed by the Senani (head of the army). There was no regular system of taxation; people gave voluntary offerings to the king, called Bali.
Society
Kinship was the basis of society's structure, with people giving their primary loyalty to the tribe, called Jana or Vis. Society was mostly patriarchal, with monogamy being prevalent. Varna was the term used for the color of people, classified into four Varnas: Brahmins (teachers and priests), Kshatriyas (rulers and administrators), Vaishyas (peasants, merchants, and bankers), and Sudras (artisans and laborers).
Rigvedic Gods
The Rigvedic people believed in nature worship and performed Yajnas in open areas. Soma was considered the God of plants, and an intoxicating drink is named after him. Important female divinities were Aditi and Usha.
Rig Vedic Deities
| God | Associated Field |
|---|---|
| Indra/Purandar (Most Important) | Breaker of Forts |
| Agni | Fire God |
| Varuna | Water God and upholder of natural order |
| Surya | God with Seven horse-driven chariot |
| Saviti | God of light to whom Gayatri Mantra is addressed |
| Mitra | Solar God |
| Pushan | God of marriage, also guarded roads and cattle |
| Vishnu | One who covered Earth in Three steps-Upakrama |
| Rudra | God of Animals |
| Dyaus | Oldest God and Father of the World |
| Ashwin/Nastya | God of health, youth, and immortality |
| Sindhu | River Goddess |
| Yama | God of death |
| Maruts | Personified storm |
| Usha | Goddess of dawn |
| Aditi | Goddess of eternity |
Types of Marriages
Eight types of marriages were practiced during the Vedic period:
| Brahma | Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same class. |
|---|---|
| Daiva | A daughter is given to a sacrificial priest as part of his fee. |
| Arsa | Giving the girl to a man in exchange for a bride-price. |
| Prajapatya | The father gives the girl without dowry and without demanding the bride-price. |
| Gandharva | Love marriage. |
| Asura | The bride was bought from her father. |
| Rakshasa | Marriage by capture. |
| Paishacha | Marriage by seduction. |
Important Rituals
- Rajasuya: The king's influence was strengthened by rituals. The king performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him.
- Asvamedha: A king performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted.
- Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen.
Later Vedic Age (1000-600 BC) (Painted Greyware Phase)
Geography
Aryans expanded from Punjab to Western UP, covered by Ganga-Yamuna Doab (Aryavarta). Later Vedic texts refer to rivers Narmada, Sadanira, Chambal, and Vindhya mountain. Later Vedas gave a threefold territorial division of India into Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhyadesa (Central India), and Dakshinapatha (Southern India).
The expansion towards the East is indicated in a legend of Satapatha Brahmana, which describes how Videha Madhava migrated from the Saraswati region, crossed Sadanira, and came to the land of Videha (modern Tirhut).
Polity
Tribal assemblies lost their importance, and royal power increased at their cost. Vidhata disappeared, and women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies. Large kingdoms formed, and kingship became completely hereditary.
The term Rashtra, indicating territory, first appeared in this period. Taittariya Brahmana refers to the theory of divine origin of kingship. Satapatha Brahmana refers to twelve Ratninas or civil functionaries of the time.
Twelve Ratninas (Shatapatha Brahmana)
| Purohita | The Priest |
|---|---|
| Mahishi | Chief Queen |
| Yuvaraja | Crown Prince |
| Suta/Sarathi | The Royal herald/the Charioteer |
| Bhagadudha | Tax collector |
| Akshavapa | Accountant |
| Palagala | Friend of king |
| Govikarta | Head of forest department |
| Senani | The General |
| Gramani | Head of the village |
| Kshata | Gateman/Chamberlain |
| Sangrahitri | Treasurer |
There was development of judiciary. Kings administered the criminal court. Serious crimes included the killing of an embryo, homicide, the murder of a Brahmin, stealing of gold, and drinking sura. Treason was a capital offense.
Society
The fourfold division of society became more clear. Initially based on occupation, it later became hereditary. Brahmins held significant power due to the growing cult of sacrifice. Kshatriyas constituted the warrior class.
Vaisyas were agriculturalists, cattle rearers, traders, artisans, and metal workers. Shudras were the lowest in the social hierarchy and served the upper three varnas. The Ashram system was formed to attain four purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha). Jabala Upanishada gives the earliest reference to four ashramas: Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, and Sanyasa.
The position of women declined. Attareya Brahmana states that a daughter is the source of misery while a son is the protector of the family. Maitrayani Samhita mentions three evils: liquor, women, and dice. Polygamy became frequent. However, some women received higher education, as indicated by the Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue in Vrihadarnyaka Upanishada.
Economy
Agriculture became the chief economic activity. Manure was known, and crops like wheat, rice, barley, beans, and Sesamum were cultivated. New occupational groups emerged, such as fishermen, washermen, dyers, doorkeepers, and footmen.
Tin, silver, and iron were known to the people. Merchants were organized into Guilds, as indicated by the terms Ganas (corporations) and Sresthins (aldermen). The characteristic pottery was Painted Grey Ware.
Religion
Rituals became important in the cult of sacrifice. Prajapati became the supreme God. Vishnu was conceived as the preserver and protector of people. Pushan, responsible for the well-being of cattle, became the God of Shudras. Towards the end of the Vedic age, a section of society began to resent priestly domination.
16 Sanskaras
- Garbhadhana
- Pumsavana
- Simantonnayan
- Jatakarma
- Namakaran
- Nishkramana
- Annaprashana
- Chudakarma
- Karnachhedana
- Vidyarmbha
- Upanayana
- Vedarambha
- Samavaratana
- Vivaha
- Vanprastha
- Vanyastha
- Annyesti
The Vedic Literature
The word Veda comes from the word Vid, meaning to know or knowledge. Vedic texts are divided between Sruti (based on hearing) and Smriti (based on memory). Veda are divided into Samhitas.
Rig Veda
- It is the oldest text in the world, also called 'the first testament of mankind.'
- Collection of hymns, composed around 1700 BC, contains 1028 hymns and 10580 verses divided into 10 mandalas.
- II to VII are the earliest mandalas, each ascribed to a particular family of Rishi: Gritsamad, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bhardwaja, Vashistha. VIII mandala is ascribed to Kanvas and Angiras. IX mandala is the compilation of Soma hymns.
- The Xth mandala contains the famous Purushasukta hymn, which explains that the four varnas were born from the mouth, arms, thighs, and feet of the creator Brahma.
- The IIIrd mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra, compiled in praise of the Sun God Savitri.
- Saraswati is the deity river in the Rig Veda.
Sama Veda
- Sama Veda derives its roots from 'saman,' which means melodies. It is a collection of melodies. The hymns of the Sama Veda were recited by Udgatri at the Soma sacrifice.
- It contains Dhrupad Raga.
Yajur Veda
- Deals with the procedures for the performance of sacrifices. The beliefs and rituals of non-Aryans are written in it.
-
Two texts of Yajur Veda:
- Shukla (White) Yajur Veda
- Krishna (Black) Yajur Veda
Atharva Veda
- It is a book of magical formulae. It contains charms and spells to ward off evil and disease.
Brahmanas
- These are the prose commentaries on various Vedic hymns. They explain the Vedas in an orthodox way and reveal the hidden meaning behind the hymns. They are ritualistic by nature.
- The most important is the 'Shatapatha Brahmana' attached to the Yajur Veda.
-
Every Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it:
- Rigveda: Aitareya and Sankhyan.
- Yajurveda: Shatapatha and Taittariya.
- Samveda: Jaiminaya, Chhandogya, and Panchvisha, Shadvinsh.
- Atharva Veda: Gopatha
The Aranyakas
- The sages dwelling in the forests explained the Vedic scriptures to their pupils in the form of Aranyakas. These have magical power and form the concluding part of Brahmanas. It provides details of the rishis living in the jungle.
The Upanishadas
- Also called Vedanta, because they denote the last phase of the Vedic period (800-500 BC).
- They are spiritual and philosophical in nature.
- There are 108 Upanishadas, and the period of 800 BC to 500 BC is known as the period of Upanishadas. 11 are predominant and are called mokhya Upanishadas. Vrihadaranyaka is the oldest Upanishad.
Vedangas
- They are the limbs of the Vedas. These are treaties of Science and Arts.
- Shiksha (deals with pronunciation) (phonetics).
- Kalpa (deals with rituals)
- Vyakarana (Grammar)
- Nirukta (Etymology)
- Chhanda (Metrics)
- Jyotisha (Astronomy)
- Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi (4th century BC) on Vyakarana.
Upavedas
There are four Upavedas:
- Dhanurveda (Upaveda of Yajur Veda): Deals with the art of warfare.
- Gandharvaveda (Upaveda of Sama Veda): Deals with art and music.
- Shilpaveda/Arthaveda (Upaveda of Atharva Veda): Deals with craft and wealth.
- Ayur Veda (Upaveda of Rig Veda): Deals with medicine.
Shad-Darshanas
Six systems of Hindu philosophies, given by six philosophers of ancient India:
- Nyaya
- Gautama - Vaisesika
- Kannada
- Sankhya
- Kapila
- Yoga
- Patanjali
- Purva Mimansa
- Jaimini
- Uttar Mimansa
- Badarayan
Puranas
- Puranas means 'the old.' There are 18 famous Puranas. Matsya Purana is the oldest. Other main puranas are Bhagavata, Vishnu, Vayu, and Brahmnada.
- They deal with 5 subjects: Sarga (creation), Pratisarga (recreation), Wamsa (Genealogies of gods), Manvantara (rule of manus), and Wamshanucharita (Genealogies of kings).
Sutras
Sutra literature is divided into three classes:
- Srauta Sutra: Dealing with large public sacrifices.
- Griha Sutra: Dealing with rituals connected with birth, naming, marriage.
- Dharma Sutra: Explain social and local customs.
Epic
- Mahabharata, written by Ved Vyas. Originally, the Mahabharata consisted of 880 verses, then it was raised to 24,000 verses. The final compilation brought the number of verses to 100,000.
- Ramayana, written by Valmiki, is older than the Mahabharata. It originally consisted of 6,000 verses, raised to 12,000, and finally 24,000 verses.
Smritis
- Dharma Shastra is another name for the Smritis, which are the law books written in sloka form.
- The important Smritis are Manav Dharma Shastra, Vishnu Dharma Shastra, Yajnavalkya Smriti, and Narada Smriti.
- Manav Dharma Shastra or Manusmriti is the oldest and most famous. Manu is supposed to be the first king and lawmaker.
- Later on, some minor Smritis and commentaries like the Mitakshara were compiled.
This comprehensive overview of the Aryan and Vedic Age provides a detailed look at the geography, polity, society, economy, and religious practices of the period, making it a valuable resource for Indian government exams and general knowledge.
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